Maggie

= = flat =Cell Size Lab=

1. After the 3 cubes were sliced in half when taken out of the solution, similarities and differences were visible. The cubes, despite their different sizes, were all able to absorb the liquid; the liquid turned the same color, which was a pink/purple, and the cubes all had the same distance of diffusion, 0.5 centimeters. It was obvious, though, that the cubes were different, due to their sizes of 3x3, 2x2, and 1x1, which had an affect on the area covered by distance of diffusion. As I said, they did have the same distance, but, in the largest cell, it covered a small area, leaving much of the inside clear, in the medium size cell, more area was covered, but there was still a substantial amount of clear, but in the smallest cell, the entire cell was pink/purple in color.

2. Of the 3 clear cubes, the 3x3, 2x2, and 1x1, the least efficient at getting outside substances into the cell was the 3x3, the largest. This is because, in the matter of 10 minutes, it absorbed some, but there was still plenty of space left to fill in the “cell” where it is clear. However, the smallest cell, which measured 1x1, seemed to be the most efficient because it appeared to absorb the most, as the entire cube was pink in color due to the amount of diffused liquid. Though, the cells seemed to be more or less efficient, none really diffused more, it was just the area covered that the solution gave off a “more or less” efficient appearance.

3. Of all of the calculations, I think rate of diffusion seems to explain what we observed in our cells models. I believe this is because in the models, the whole point was to simulate diffusion and how far the liquid diffuses in the cell membrane. Thus, the rate of diffusion was perfect, as it explains that the liquid diffused 0.05 centimeters per minute.

4. If the cell is small or large, then it will still diffuse the same amount of liquid (if the same liquid). I believe my statement on the relationship of cell size and efficiency is correct, as in all the cell models we observed, which all diffused the same liquid, they all diffused the same distance of diffusion. However, one might be fooled because the size of the model makes it appear as if it absorbed more or less, when in reality, they all had 0.5 centimeters as there distance of diffusion

=Protists Lab=



**Euglena**


 * Euglenas are very interesting protists as they are sort of like a mixture of a plant and animal. This is because, like a plant, they make their own food, but they also eat food, like and animal, to obtain energy.


 * They eat the green algae, giving euglenas their green color. In fact, the algae that they keep in their bodies contain chloroplasts that help make the food.


 * Euglenas possess something called an eyespot, which helps them perform photosynthesis. This eyespot is actually a pigmented organelle located on the anterior of the euglena. Since the eyespot is highly sensitive towards light, it can detect the sunlight needed for the process of photosynthesis.


 * []**


 * []**

=**"You Are What You Eat"**=

The saying “You are what you eat,” is commonly used, but doesn’t always sink into peoples’ heads. Honestly, I have considered this saying (especially when you go up a jean size!). To me, it means that only I have the control of my health and appearance. For example, if I chose to eat chocolate and French fries everyday, I would most likely not be happy with my appearance of my overall well being. I would have excess fat and feel sluggish. However, if I chose to eat healthy, which I try my best to do in this tempting, junk food world, then I would look better, feel better, and be more satisfied. Basically, what I am trying to say is that, if you choose to put “bad” things in your body, constantly, then you will get “bad” results, such as diabetes, heart trouble, and other chronic diseases, but if you eat healthy, “good” foods, then you will benefit with having energy, good health, and boosted self-confidence.

**Questions**

Can one live a healthy life without consuming animal products?

Are starches-breads, pastas, etc. –really bad for you?

How do processed foods affect my health?

Is it a good idea to switch to an all-organic diet?

What are the long term effects of consuming excess junk food?

=Biomolecules in Foods Lab=


 * 1. Potato- brownish color**

(Benedicts) Testing for simple sugars (carbohydrates that are monosaccharides and disaccharides)**- Positive; turned greenish/orange**

(Iodine) Testing for starches (carbohydrates and polysaccharides made from **the** monomer glucose**- Positive; turned blue/ black**

(Biuret) Testing for proteins**- Positive; turned purple (mauve)**

(Sudan IV) Testing for fats and oils**- Negative**


 * 2.** I tested a potato for simple sugars, starches, proteins, and fats and oils. In the experiment, I came to the conclusion that a potato did, in fact, contain simple sugars, starches, and proteins, but did not contain fats and oils. When I researched the nutritional information of a potato, I found that my results were very accurate. An average potato (which is roughly 163 calories), contains 4.3 grams of protein, 4.7 grams of dietary fiber, 1.7 grams of sugar, and 37 grams of total carbohydrates. However, there does seem to be the slightest bit of fats in a potato. Though the Sudan IV test tested negative for fats, research shows that a potato contains a total of 0.2 grams of fat, with 0.1 grams of saturated fat and 0.1 grams of polyunsaturated fat. It is possible that because a potato has such a low fat content, that that is the reason for the negative test results.


 * 3.** I will be the first to admit that I love carbs. Breads, pastas, potatoes-basically everything with starch! But, I do try my hardest to eat a variety of foods (now I am getting off topic talking about my diet)! Anyway, some of my foods of choice are a potato in which I tested, milk, and apple juice. A potato contains simple sugars, starches, and proteins (with just the slightest amount of fat). Milk, which was 2% milk that Jacob tested, contains simple sugars, protein, and fat, but no starches. Finally, apple juice, which Amanda tested, contained only simple sugars, and no starches, proteins, or fats and oils. Potatoes, which are a very popular food, actually are relatively healthy, if they are not fried or loaded with grease and buttery fats. A potato itself benefits the body as it does not have a lot of calories and is high in fiber, providing protection against cardiovascular disease and cancer. Scientists in Europe even found compounds called kukoamines in potatoes that are to lower blood pressure. Potatoes are also a great source of vitamins and minerals. Milk contains nutrients for glowing skin, the calcium helps for strong bones and prevents tooth decay and cavities, the protein helps repair muscle, and milk even reduces the liver’s production of cholesterol. And, apple juice, despite all the sugar (which is why my mom does not let me drink it often), has its benefits, as well. It promotes heart health with its antioxidants, helps prevent asthma due to the flavonoids, cleanses the liver, reduces cholesterol, makes bones strong and healthy, prevents cancer, and improves eye health. So, in conclusion of the biomolecules in food, I believe, that in order to lead a healthy life, one must eat a variety of foods.


 * []**


 * []**


 * []**

=Biomolecule Extra Credit=


 * Can one live a healthy life without consuming animal products? **

According to my research, one can certainly live a healthy and even a longer life without the need for eating animal products like meats. Many vegans and vegetarians generally live longer than those who eat meats, according to a recent report. Heart disease, cancer, Alzheimer’s, COPD, diabetes, kidney failure, suicide: all horrible factors of life that can be prevented with a plant-based diet. Meats contain dietary cholesterols, scary additives, fats and proteins that decline kidney function, and so on that contribute to all the health risks. However, a plant-based diet seems to be the way to go as fruits and veggies can prevent and treat diseases and can even boost happiness, improving one’s overall health. Now, I believe it is not necessarily a horrible thing to eat meat (though I love animals and I hate when people eat them), but with my research, I have concluded that one can live a healthy life without eating animal products, and if one chooses to eat meat, then it is best to limit consumption.


 * Are starches-breads, pastas, etc.-really bad for you? **

Considering bread is one of my favorite foods and I consume bread, pasta, potatoes, etc., every day, I have always wondered if I should be cutting back. Well, I have found that I am not on death row because I enjoy breads. Starchy foods provide energy and contain fibre, calcium, iron, and B vitamins. And though the calories “scare” people into not eating the recommended amounts (a healthy diet consists of 1/3 starchy food), it is evident that 1gram of starchy foods contains less calories than 1 gram of fatty foods. The only thing to watch out for would be the refined sugars found in foods like white breads as these refined starches interfere with glucose control, so a healthier alternative would be whole grain. All in all, like everything, too much of one thing is not good, but my research reassured me that it is okay to eat an extra breadstick at the Olive Garden!


 * How do processed foods affect my health? **

The word “processed” always left a bad taste in my mouth, but you have to admit it is so easy to take something out of the freezer and throw it in the oven and call it dinner. Processed foods, unfortunately, are as evil as they sound. They can cause malnourishment, sicknesses, and obesity. All these, in turn, are because of all the pesticides, preservatives, colorings, sweeteners, flavorings, thickeners, and the list goes on. Processed foods have that tasty, attractive sweetness that keeps us coming back. Manufacturers of processed foods will do whatever it takes to keep consumers wanting more, while the well being of the consumer is hardly a factor. Processed foods don’t contain all the nutrients we need, they have sugars and other factors that help pack on the pounds, and are overall not healthy. So, processed foods can affect my health in negative ways, so it would be to my advantage to lower my intake.

Organic foods have become increasingly popular. It is to say, that it is not such a bad idea to switch some organic foods if not all organic foods. The more I read about organic, the more promising it sounds. Organic foods are foods that have to be grown in safe soil, have no modifications, and remain separate from conventional products. Also, farmers are not permitted to use synthetic pesticides, bioengineered genes (GMOs), petroleum-based fertilizers, and sewage sludge- based fertilizer. The foods labeled “organic” are definitely healthier than processed foods and contain fewer chemicals, making it safe to say it can be a good idea to switch to an all-organic diet.
 * Is it a good idea to switch to an all-organic diet? **


 * What are the long-term effects of consuming excess junk foods? **

Junk food is obviously not the best choice for one’s body, hence the term “junk.” This is because junk foods can affect energy levels, contribute to poor performance and obesity, damage the liver and heart, and lead to diabetes. Fast foods and junk foods do not contain necessary amounts of proteins and good carbohydrates, as well as needed nutrients and as a result, one may feel fatigue, not have enough energy, feel cranky, and finally, have a lot of stress put on their metabolism. Junk foods contain high levels of fats and sodium that cause weight gain and poor cognitive performance, leaving one feeling tired and lacking concentration. These fats and sodium also raise blood cholesterol levels and contribute to plaque build up in the arteries causing heart disease and liver dysfunction. And, finally, the stress that all the high levels of simple sugars and carbohydrates that junk foods put on one’s metabolism can lead to type 2 diabetes because the body needs to increase insulin production in order to prevent dangerous spikes in blood sugar levels. The point is, it is important to keep junk food consumption at a minimum and spend more time at the gym than at McDonalds.

[]

[]

[]

[]

[]

[]

[]

= DNA Replication Model Project =



1.) First we start out with a double helix of DNA.The double helix shape resembles a "twisted ladder." Note: the bases adenine and thymine are always paired up and guanine and cytosine are always paired up



2.) DNA Helicase splits or “unzips” the strand of DNA into two by breaking the hydrogen bonds at the origin of replication. The orange blocks and circles are phosphates and 5 carbon sugar molecules attached to the nine nitrogen bases, forming nucleotides. The strands complement each other with base pairs that match up. So basically, the complementary strand is like the other half of the ladder. The two strands run antiparalell.

3.) DNA Helicase splits DNA into a leading strand that gets synthesized continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction with the help of single-stranded proteins, and a lagging strand that gets synthesized discontinuously in short segments called Okazaki fragments and with the help of other enzymes.

4.)RNA primase attaches to the DNA and synthesizes a short RNA primer.

5.)The RNA primer allows DNA polymerase III to add deoxyribonucleotides to the 3’ end of the RNA primer.

6.)Polymerase I comes in and replaces DNA polymerase III.



7.) With replacing polymerase III, DNA polymerase I removes RNA and replaces it with DNA. This is due to the fact that a DNA strand has to obviously contain all DNA and no RNA.



8.) DNA ligase then forms a phosphodiester bond between the 3’ OH of the growing strand and the 5’ phosphate in front of it.



9.) In the end, as stated earlier, the leading strand of DNA gets synthesized continuously, while the lagging strand goes through a more complex process and gets synthesized discontinuously. DNA gets replicated.

So, in a few words (or maybe a lot, knowing me!) let me review how DNA replication works. Inside each chromosome in a eukaryotic cell, one can find a DNA molecule that has genes lined up and a large amount of noncoding DNA. In this noncoding DNA, there are long stretches that make up a structure called the centromere. Long stretches, too, make up telomeres found at the ends of the chromosomes. These telomeres are extremely important to cellular life as they prevent ends of different chromosomes from attaching to each other.

We know that the replicating chromosomes is not always the simplest of tasks because when DNA splits, the leading strand gets synthesized continuously, while the lagging strand gets synthesized discontinuously and presents more of a problem. DNA polymerase III has to synthesize sections called Okazaki fragment, working in the opposite direction. After polymerase I replaces the polymerase III which needs an RNA primer for synthesizing, polymerase I also replaces RNA with DNA. Ligase, then, forms phosphodiester bonds.

Now back to telomeres; telomerase, which is related to telomeres since telomerase is an enzyme that adds telomere repeat sequences to the 3 prime end of DNA strands, and lengthens the DNA strands to fully “complete the synthesis of the ‘incomplete ends’ of the opposite strand.” Though telomerase is a part in cell health, it can also have negative effects. For example, many cancers express telomerase. If telomerase is expressed and mutations occur, cell transplants can take place by removing the cell from the patient, transform them using the gene for the product in which could not be synthesized, and returned to the patient, but the reverse may not always work if the cancer cells begin to make telomerase again. Finally, in cloning, telomeres play a role and the lengths of telomeres could be a possible factor.

So why is DNA replication so important? Replicating DNA is vital as so many things can go wrong and occur in the body. For example, if a new cell needs to be made, a section of cellular DNA must be replicated before mitosis occurs and one cell splits into two cells. If the copying of genes and DNA is not done correctly and exactly, then problems such as mutations can occur. In fact, only three mutations are accepted in the human genome. Mutations can be subtle or serious and can affect how an organism looks, its behavior, and its overall health. Damage to DNA and genes from all sorts of factors (such as environmental) can even cause cancer. DNA can be cloned too, if the desired fragment is selectively amplified. Cells can be transplanted, as I said, or injected so healthy cells can replace damaged or diseased ones such cancer cells. Telomeres, as mentioned before, are at the ends of chromosomes and protect our genetic material. Every time a cell divides, telomeres get shorter. If the telomeres get too short, then, cells can no longer divide and this shortening is associated with aging, cancer, and increased risk of death.

= Transcription/Translation Flip Book = media type="custom" key="25200674" =Mutation=
 * Cry- du-chat Syndrome **


 * 1) chromosomal mutation
 * 2) 5p- (5p minus), cat cry syndrome, monosomy 5p, 5p deletion syndrome, chromosome 5p- syndrome
 * 3) infant’s cries are often high-pitched and sound like a cat cry; as infants, symptoms include low birth weight, weak muscle tone (hypotonia), small head size (microcephaly), intellectual disability, and delayed development; individuals with this disease could also have distinctive facial features like widely set eyes (hypertelorism), low-set ears, a small jaw, and a rounded face; some children are born with heart defects
 * 4) an estimation of 1 in 20,000 to 50,000 newborns (can occur in all ethnic backgrounds)
 * 5) most cases are not inherited; deletion occurs randomly when reproductive cells are formed or in early fetal development; those effected usually have no history of the disorder in their families

[]

=Intro Activity to Fuel Economy:= 1. What relationship do you notice between the fuel economy and the taxes in a given country?

I noticed that the greater the fuel economy (miles per gallon), the greater the petrol tax.

2. Do a quick research of the most often used transportation (types of vehicles) for the countries?

The most often used means of transportation used in the countries are cars, trains, and buses.

3. What conclusions can we draw?

We can draw the conclusion that if the fuel economy is greater, you will pay more tax on less fuel.